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LANGUAGE POLICY IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF
THE WESTERN CAPE
November 2002
Dié dokument is ook in Afrikaans beskikbaar:  Taalbeleid vir primêre skole in die Wes-kaap


CONTENTS

  1.  Abbreviations, Definitions and Explanations
  2.  Executive Summary
  3.  Preamble
  4.  Introduction
  5.  Findings: Research Tasks 1 to 6
  6.  Recommendations
  7.  Conclusion
  8.  Recommended Implementation Plan
  9.  Proposed Introduction of a Third Language
10.  Addenda: Research Reports | Acknowledgements | Task Team Members | Advisory Committee Members
(This document has been adapted for delivery via the Internet.  Last updated 12 December, 2002)

The Western Cape Education Department welcomes comment on this report. See here for further information.


Findings

Quick links to:  Task 1: Mother-tongue Tuition | Task 2: Implications for Policy: Human, Financial and other Resources required
Task 3(a): Curriculum Framework and Assessment Strategies | Task 3(b): Status and role of SA Sign Language for the Deaf
Task 4: Availability of Resources and Facilities | Task 5: Language Attitudes and Perceptions within Communities
Task 6: Legal and Administrative Rights and Duties

This section of the Report provides a summary of the major findings emanating from each of the research tasks. These and other (minor) findings appear in more detail in the individual Research Reports I to VI (not included with this version of the document).

Research Task 1: Mother-tongue Tuition (see Research Report I)

A summary was made of reports on the main research projects pertaining to language medium in education. Areas under review included North and South America, West and East Europe, India and SE Asia, the rest of Africa and South Africa. Some of the major findings and key propositions that are generic to language medium in education were extracted and are set out below:

  1.1

On both a priori and empirical grounds, all researchers agree that mother-tongue education
(= L1- medium = MTE) results in cognitive advantages for school learners, especially in the first years of primary school. The majority of studies also support the proposition that bilingual education affords children numerous cognitive advantages over monolingual children. At worst, there is no evidence to indicate that children in bilingual (=MT + L2) programmes are in any way damaged, cognitively disadvantaged or placed at risk academically, when compared with children in monolingual L1 programmes.

  1.2

Some of the researchers state explicitly, and most others imply, that MTE affirms children in their self-worth and in their identity. Children exhibit increased and more lively participation in the classroom process. Their levels of self-assurance are raised, as is their critical engagement with the teacher/educator. Conversely, children, all over the world who are submerged in an education system through the L2, demonstrate loss of self-confidence and low-self esteem.

  1.3

Most modern research confirms the proposition that a sound foundation in the mother-tongue facilitates the learning of additional languages. It also supports the intuition that children who are obliged to learn through a language they do not know are in most cases extremely disadvantaged and unable to catch up. The few studies that demonstrate successful learning via the L2 in the early years (various forms of "immersion") relate to middle-class contexts where the community concerned, among other things, places a high value on the L1. The learners usually have as their L1 a powerful language such as English, French or Russian, the status of which is not threatened, and teachers are very well trained.

  1.4

Research suggests that most children need at least 12 years to become competent in the L1. There is an implicit need for a minimum of 7 years of primary schooling in the L1, but the introduction of the L2 can be handled with much flexibility. Quality, not quantity, of exposure to the L2 is decisive in respect of learning the additional language. The time of introduction of L2 is less crucial than the requisite provision of language teachers, suitable materials and resources, favourable attitudes of the teachers and parents, and the need to make the learning experience enjoyable for the children.
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Literacy learning for bilingual education (biliteracy learning):

  1.5

Research provides evidence that literacy transfers across languages. Learning to read in the mother-tongue makes learning to read (and write) in an additional language easier (successive biliteracy). However, learning to read and write in two languages at the same time (simultaneous biliteracy) is perfectly feasible in certain contexts, particularly urban settings where the additional language is a highly resourced, high status (thus desirable) language to which children have plenty of exposure.

  1.6

Research shows that, at present, Free Voluntary Reading (reading 'freely' for enjoyment or for information) is largely ignored in both first and second language literacy programmes. Studies into its effects on learning indicate better reading comprehension, writing style, vocabulary, spelling and grammatical development than when teaching is largely or only done by direct instruction.
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Costs

  1.7

Although few of the research projects on MTE/bilingual education have examined the issue of costs specifically, those that have done so, all arrive at the conclusion that it is a fallacy that bilingual education is more costly than L2–medium education. Of significance here is the indication that the salaries component of the education budget, which normally constitutes the largest category (more than 85% in most cases in South Africa), remains constant for most contexts where MT-based bilingual education is introduced.

Note: It is self-evident that any reform will involve large initial investments. Introducing or extending MT-based bilingual education will not be exceptional in this regard. However, the issue of "costs" needs to be seen in both an economic and a social context.
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Research Task 2: Implications for Policy: Human, Financial and other Resources required (see Research Report II)

A comprehensive questionnaire was developed by the Curriculum Planning unit of WCED in collaboration with PRAESA and the Schools Development Unit of UCT, and sent to 1151 schools in the province. The response rate was 31,5%. This was accepted as a valid sample and reliable indicator of provincial norms. A follow-up qualitative interview process was conducted in a sample of schools that responded. The major relevant findings are listed below:

Learner Language Profile:

  2.1

In terms of the spread of home languages, the majority of learners in the sample have Afrikaans as a home language (HL), either solely (50%) or in combination with English (8%) or Xhosa (0.5%). The total combined figure is very close to the 2001 WCED EMIS figure of 57% Afrikaans HL speakers across all schools in the province.

English is the HL of more than one-quarter of learners in our sample, either as the only HL (26%) or in bilingual combinations with Afrikaans (8%) or Xhosa (2.5%). The total of 37% makes English the second-biggest HL in the province. This figure is almost double the proportion of English HL speakers as recorded in the 2001 WCED EMIS database for schools (19%). One explanation for the discrepancy is that there was an urban bias in the response rate to the questionnaire.

Xhosa is spoken as a HL by 15% of our sample, either solely (12%) or in combination with English (2%) or Afrikaans (0.5%). This figure falls below the 2001 WCED EMIS figure for Xhosa HL (23%), and can be explained by the relatively low number of ex-DET schools that responded to the questionnaire.

  2.2

Some 11% of learners in the sample have two home languages, mostly in the Afrikaans/English combination. Given the demographic changes the province is experiencing this trend is likely to grow.

  2.3

More than one-third of Xhosa-speaking learners in our sample (12 475 of 36 644, or 34%) are currently enrolled in non-ex-DET schools. This represents a huge demographic shift in a schooling system already under stress. The converse is NOT true with very few non-Xhosa speaking learners (4%) attending ex-DET schools. These could be speakers of other African languages not included in this study.

  2.4

While the majority of learners (53%) in the sample are in ex-HoR schools, the average number of learners per school is highest, as expected, in ex-DET schools (841), followed by ex-CED schools (577), ex-HoD schools (549) and ex-HoR schools (488). This suggests overcrowding in ex-DET schools, and a high number of smaller (including farm) ex-HoR schools.
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Educators Language Profile:

  2.5

On average in every ex-CED school there are 8 SGB posts, with most of them being in the primary school, and 83% of these are language educators. This could represent the swing to English as medium of instruction that seems to be emerging. In the ex-DET schools there is one SGB post for every other school, again mostly in the primary schools. The ex-HOR schools seem to have one SGB post per school in the primary schools with nearly all of these being for language educators.

  2.6

It appears that almost half the Xhosa speaking educators are NOT teaching in their home language. This means that they are:

  • Either being used as language support for Xhosa speaking learners in English/Afrikaans medium classes, or

  • Teaching Xhosa as a second additional language (Ad2) to English speaking learners, or

  • Teaching non-language subjects in English or Afrikaans, or

  • Simply being under-utilised.

  2.7

None of the educators who formed part of this survey have been formally trained to teach bilingually, whether in the Afrikaans/ English combination typical of ex-CED and ex-HoR schools, or in the Xhosa/ English combination that characterises ex-DET schooling. It is the distinct impression of researchers that the quality of learning and teaching in several of the schools they visited is compromised on account of educators’ relative lack of training in the LoLT and/or in the home language of learners, amongst other factors. Put differently, educators are in many cases not effective, because of language deficiencies, and despite their formal (subject) qualifications. The information on teachers' qualifications reveals that only very few teachers actually have a language qualification in Xhosa.

  2.8

Very few Xhosa-speaking teachers are currently employed in ex-CED and ex-HOR schools. There has not been any notable redeployment of Xhosa-speaking teachers across the old racial divide, and the resultant mismatch between learners, educators and language has resulted in severe communication (and attendant) problems in former ‘coloured’ and ‘white’ schools.
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Language Policy in Schools

  2.9

The field of language policy at school level is very complex and thus defies easy categorisation. Descriptors such as ‘dual-medium’ and ‘parallel-medium’ education are currently used to cover a range of widely differing practices. Institutions that have the descriptor ‘parallel-medium’, for instance, frequently also have dual-medium classes for some grades or in some learning areas, and vice versa. Accordingly, some schools classify themselves as ‘dual/parallel’ medium institutions. Furthermore, the labels ‘dual’ and ‘parallel’ do not seem to fit the ex-DET schools. In theory, the official approach is one of ‘subtraction’ (a diminishing role for the MT as LoLT), yet in practice, schools are characterised by an unofficial (oral) use of the home language for teaching and learning purposes. This tendency towards an almost covert use of the MT continues despite the provisions of LiEP in regard to multilingualism.

  2.10

The LiEP is not being implemented at schools, and its ‘additive multilingualism’ ethos is effectively lost.

  2.11

Between 40% and 50% of schools in the sample do not have a written language policy. However, 60% of the schools with a written policy indicate that the policy was approved by the School Governing Body (SGB), which appears to be significantly more influential in this role than either staff or the broader parent community. What is clearly evident, though, is that schools are in dire need of support in language policy formulation and implementation across all the ex-departments.
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Language Practice in Schools

  2.12

A substantial minority of schools (14%) has changed their language of teaching in the last decade. Parent demand for English and changing learner demographics are reportedly the main factors here.

  2.13

Language practices at school level are determined largely by contextual factors such as resourcing, demographic shift, parental preferences, and the language proficiencies of educators. Many of these practices are educationally sound, especially in well-resourced schools that boast highly-qualified educators. However, the lack of articulation between Curriculum 2005 and the LiEP is everywhere apparent, as educators trained for the former are uninformed about the latter. This is especially tragic in ex-DET schools, where educators continue to believe that official language policy is violated by the use of the primary language (Xhosa) for teaching and learning purposes.

  2.14

OBE assessment requirements for language subjects have complicated the lives of educators in ‘mixed’ classes, particularly where learners are not proficient in the LoLT or in the additional language. Assessment remains one of the most taxing aspects of life for all educators in dual- and parallel-medium schools. Large classes bedevil attempts at continuous evaluation, particularly with regard to individual oral marks. As a consequence, learners are sometimes assessed orally in groups, in order to comply with C2005 requirements.
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Research Task 3(a): Curriculum Framework and Assessment Strategies (see Research Report III)

The findings detailed below were extracted from a report compiled by the Curriculum Planning unit, WCED. The source material for this report comprised a wide range of relevant policy documents, including, inter alia, the Revised National Curriculum Statement (Grades R to 9: 2002), the Language in Education Policy and LiEP Implementation Plan (November 2001) and Education White Paper 6 (Special Needs Education). The South African Constitution (Act 108 of 1996) and the SA Schools Act (Act 84 of 1996) were also consulted.

Curriculum Framework:

  3.1

The Department of Education’s Language in Education Policy, applicable to schools, recognises the critical importance of mother-tongue as the language of the heart and the hearth. It also promotes additive multilingualism. This means that learners must learn additional languages at the same time as maintaining and developing their home languages. Additive multilingualism makes it possible for learners to acquire complex skills such as reading and writing in their strongest language. They are then able to transfer these skills to their additional language.

  3.2

The curriculum reforms embarked upon, in the form of the Revised National Curriculum Statement for Curriculum 2005, recognises the importance of mother–tongue instruction if any learning is to be effective. In the General Education and Training band a thorough knowledge of the learners’ mother-tongue/home language is developed which provides a sound base for learning additional languages. It is recommended that the learners’ mother-tongue/home language should be used for learning and teaching wherever possible. This is particularly important in the Foundation Phase where children learn to read and write.

  3.3

In the situation where learners have to make a transition from their home language to an additional language as the language of learning and teaching, this should be carefully planned:

  • The additional language should be introduced as a subject in Grade 1.

  • The home language should continue to be used alongside the additional language as long as possible.

  3.4

The Languages Learning Area is in line with the Department of Education’s Language-in-Education Policy. This policy gives School Governing Bodies the responsibility of selecting school language policies that are appropriate for their circumstances and that are in line with the policy of additive multilingualism. The Languages Learning Area Statement provides a curriculum that is supportive of whatever decision a school makes. It follows an additive approach to multilingualism:

  • All learners learn their home language and at least one additional official language.

  • Learners become competent in their additional language, while their home language is maintained and developed.

  • All learners learn an African language for a minimum of three years by the end of the General Education and Training Band. In some circumstances, it may be learned as a second additional language.

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Assessment Strategies:

  3.5

The home, first additional and second additional languages are approached in different ways:

  • The home language Assessment Standards assume that learners come to school able to understand and speak the language. They support the development of this competence, especially with regard to various types of literacy (reading, writing, visual and critical literacies). They provide a strong curriculum to support the language of learning and teaching.

  • The first additional language assumes that learners do not necessarily have any knowledge of the language when they arrive at school. The curriculum starts by developing learners’ ability to understand and speak the language. On this foundation, it builds literacy. Learners are able to transfer the literacies they have acquired in their home language to their first additional language. The curriculum provides strong support for those learners who will use their first additional language as a language of learning and teaching. By the end of Grade 9, these learners should be able to use their home language and first additional language effectively and with confidence for a variety of purposes including learning.

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Research Task 3(b): Status and role of SA Sign Language for the Deaf

  3.6

Through a number of key provisions, the South African Constitution recognises basic human rights for all citizens. These relate to equity, equality, non-discrimination and language. In respect of equity and equality, everyone has the right to basic education, including adult basic education.

  3.7

Another key provision in the Constitution relates to the issue of discrimination. The Constitution requires that:

"The state may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds, including race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language and birth".

Therefore, all public authorities, including the Ministry of Education, are obliged to vindicate the requirements recognised in the Constitution, and to address the difficulties experienced by deaf students.

  3.8

The Constitution recognises and affords protection to Sign Language. The founding provisions contained in Chapter 1 of the Constitution include the responsibility of the Pan South African Language Board to promote and create conditions for the development and use of all official languages, including the Khoi, Nama and San languages, as well as Sign Language.

  3.9

The White Paper, which reflects a shift towards inclusive education, also provides a realistic and manageable plan for the implementation of an inclusive education and training strategy. This plan can accommodate the requirements for SA Sign Language.

  3.10

There are, presently, very few teachers educating deaf students who are equipped to teach through the medium of Sign Language. As a result, deaf students are often forced into learning through the so-called ‘oral’ method, or having to learn through signed spoken languages. Similarly, there are very few house-parents in hostels with deaf students who can communicate through Sign Language. There are also very few Sign Language interpreters at tertiary level.

  3.11

The consequences of past segregationist practices are evident in the following anomalies:

  • 30% of all deaf adults are functionally illiterate as a result of inadequate educational practices

  • About 65% of all deaf adults are unemployed

  • The vast majority of deaf children never attended school or attended school at a very late stage

  • Resources are not equally distributed across sectors of the population as a result of the past practices

  • Deaf people have historically been excluded from participating in decision-making and self-determination.

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Research Task 4: Availability of Resources and Facilities (see Research Report IV)

The findings listed below emanate from interviews held with selected key stakeholders such as writers, publishers, HEI managers, language practitioners and WCED subject advisors. Other sources of data included an analysis of responses to a questionnaire as well as site-visits and inspections of facilities in the province.

Training Facilities for Language Specialists:

  4.1

The Bureau Vir die Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal (WAT) is involved in dictionary-making, not only for Afrikaans but also for African languages. They organise workshops and in-service training. The WAT is now a national resource in the sense that it no longer looks after the interests of the Afrikaans language only. The three universities situated in the Western Cape, through their respective departments of African Languages, are well-positioned to develop a strategic plan to make the work being undertaken by the WAT sustainable.

  4.2

There are experienced and well-qualified language experts in all three universities, and both technikons, in the Western Cape. Some of these people are already working very closely through the African Languages Association of Southern Africa (ALASA) and other academic associations. At least two of the local universities offer structured courses in translation studies, interpreting and lexicography. Elsewhere in South Africa, several universities and technikons offer undergraduate diplomas and degrees, or post-graduate diplomas and degrees with appropriate specialisations.

  4.3

WCED is potentially well resourced in the area of training for interpreters for service within departmental structures. Fortunately, the national Parliament is located in Cape Town, as is the provincial Legislature. The Education Department can profit from the expertise in some national and provincial government departments as far as translating and interpreting are concerned.

  4.4

The five major Publishing Houses in the Western Cape have facilities for training translators of textbooks and other learning materials. These are: Oxford University Press (OUP); Maskew Miller Longman (MML); Juta; Nasou Via-Africa and New Africa Books (NAB). (NAB, however says they have limited resources, but in terms of person power they could be useful). This task would have to be co-ordinated by the tertiary institutions to avoid problems between commercial publishing houses.

  4.5

Structures such as the Pan South African Language Board (PANSALB), the Western Cape Language Committee, the National Language Service, and the Xhosa Language Board are well positioned to render assistance when needed.
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Training Facilities for Educators:

  4.6

There are five higher education institutions (HEI’s) in the province, each with a Faculty or School of Education. Not all are presently involved in the professional education of pre-service teachers, and those that are involved, for example, Cape Technikon, are experiencing difficulty in filling available places. The position, therefore, is one of under-utilised capacity.

  4.7

The five HEI’s have capacity and are well-geared to provide courses for the professional development and re-orientation of serving teachers, both in terms of language content and didactics. In addition, WCED has a specialised facility in Kuils River (the Cape Teaching Institute housed at the former WC College of Education) for short-term courses and training workshops. Courses are presented by the core staff of the Institute, or by NGEO’s under contract.

  4.8

The WCED curriculum advisors constitute a valuable resource, as indicated by the well thought-out ideas of those who were interviewed. Their experience, expertise and access to educators at the schools can facilitate decisions on how this implementation can be initiated and sustained.
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Production and Supply of Learning Materials:

  4.9

It was discovered that established publishing houses are more ready and well-resourced than emerging ones. However, they are all willing to form an integral part of any initiative requiring their unique contribution. Their readiness, however, rests upon the removal of past obstacles, such as poor communication, impossible deadlines and failure to honour orders for learning support materials. In their view, the obstacles are not insurmountable, and can be overcome by including publishers and suppliers in a broad-based planning process.
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Research Task 5: Language Attitudes and Perceptions within Communities (see Research Report Va and Vb)

Quantitative research methodology was employed for the Language Attitude Survey. Data was extracted and analysed from questionnaires and interviews conducted with 750 representative respondents in the larger metropolitan area, middle-sized towns and small towns spread across the province. Qualitative information was derived from semi-structured meetings held with 30 representative respondents in each of 3 geographical locations, namely, Cape Town Metro, George and Ceres. The results of the quantitative and qualitative processes were compared and reconciled. The findings are summarised below:

Mother–tongue Tuition:

  5.1

The results of both the language attitude survey and the qualitative research clearly show a positive attitude and perception regarding mother-tongue instruction in Grades 1 – 7 in the primary schools in the Western Cape. The majority of respondents in the qualitative survey argue that there is a direct link between academic performance and the medium of instruction. The majority of the respondents feel that those who receive mother-tongue instruction perform better and that learners who are taught in a second or third language often become school drop-outs.

  5.2

The research indicates a positive attitude towards English as LoLT among a minority of Xhosa-speaking respondents, who believe that English, as an international language and the language of the corporate world, provides opportunities for upward social mobility.
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Multilingualism:

  5.3

The research shows that most respondents regard multilingualism as essential for educational and economic empowerment, enhanced communicative abilities and nation building. Most respondents are in favour of their children learning a third language in the primary school, and of adults being afforded opportunities to learn a third language to facilitate understanding. The majority opinion is that second and third languages should be added as subjects in Grades 1 to 7 in primary schools in the Western Cape. At present, however, a large majority of Afrikaans- and English-speaking children do not know or learn Xhosa.

  5.4

The research also indicates that some households speak more than one language at home. However, language strategy development or instruction should be based on the mother-tongue of children and their parents.
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Language Attitudes:

  5.5

The results of the question on language attitudes indicate a positive attitude towards English in the public domain. This is attributed to the dominance of English in high-status domains. The research indicates that the dominance of English in the private domain is reduced to a few percentage points (7%) above Afrikaans. The figure for Xhosa increases commensurate with the number of Xhosa-speakers. In the domain of popular culture, English is once more valued higher than Afrikaans or Xhosa 11.

  5.6

A percentage of the respondents in the qualitative survey reveal negative feelings towards Afrikaans and, to a lesser degree, to Xhosa, and positive feelings towards English. Respondents blame their language choices, preferences and attitudes on the previous political dispensation, compulsory school curricula, the status ascribed to the languages and their exposure to the languages.
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Research Task 6: Legal and Administrative Rights and Duties (see Research Report VI)

The findings outlined below emerge from a study of the SA Schools Act (Act 84 of 1996), the national Language in Education Policy issued in terms of Section 3(4)(m) of the National Education Policy Act (Act 27 of 1996), the Norms and Standards regarding Language Policy published in terms of Section 6(1) of the SA Schools Act, the LiEP Implementation Plan (2001) and the Western Cape Provincial School Education Act 12 of 1997.

Legal: Mother-tongue (Home language) Tuition

  6.1

All relevant current legislation, for example, the Constitution (Act No.108 of 1996), the SA Schools Act (Act 84 of 1996) and the Western Cape School Education Act (Act 12 of 1997), provides for mother-tongue instruction. The learner has a right to choose in which language he or she wants to be instructed, and there are mechanisms for enforcing this right. However, although current legislation recognises the learner’s rights to mother-tongue instruction, these rights are dependent on a number of factors such as practicality and budgetary constraints.

  6.2

The Department has full powers to create new legislation to make home language education mandatory. Although Section 6(2) of the South African Schools Act (Act 84 of 1996) provides that the "governing body of a public school may determine the language policy of the school" this right is subject to the Constitution, the SA Schools Act, and any applicable provincial law. The Western Cape Provincial School Education Act (Act 12 of 1997) section 3 sub-sections (1) and (2) provides the following, namely, that "the Member of the Executive Council may, where necessary, from time to time determine the policy which is to be pursued in respect of education in schools in the province", within the framework of the following principles, namely that "every learner shall have the right to mother-tongue education, including the right to take his or her mother-tongue as a subject, insofar as it is reasonably practicable".
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Additional Languages:

  6.3

Current legislation allows the Department to implement the policy of making 3 (three) languages compulsory as it is in line with the Constitution, the S.A Schools Act and the Western Cape Provincial Schools Act.

  6.4

The current legislation provides for compulsory language subjects as well as for instruction in mother-tongue language. Regulations passed in terms of Section 3(4)(m) of the National Education Policy Act 27 of 1996, which relate to the policy of languages as subjects, advocate a minimum number of required language subjects in each grade. It does not determine a maximum number of languages as subjects, in order to keep it in line with the learner’s rights in terms of the Constitution as well as the aims of the Language in Education Policy.

  6.5

The Language in Education Policy, published in terms of Section 3(4)(m) of the National Education Policy Act, 1996, confirms that the right to choose the language of learning and teaching is vested in the individual, but indicates that this right has to be exercised within the framework of the obligation on the education system to promote multilingualism.
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Duties of the Provincial Education Department (Administrative):

  6.6

Where there are fewer than 40 requests in Grades 1 to 6 (or fewer than 35 requests in Grades 7 to 12) for instruction in a language in a given grade not already offered by a school in a particular school district, the head of the provincial department of education will determine how the needs of those learners will be met.

  6.7

In the case of a new school, the governing body of the school in consultation with the relevant provincial authority determines the language policy of the new school in accordance with regulations promulgated in terms of section 6(1) of the South African Schools Act, 1996.

  6.8

The provincial department must explore ways of sharing scarce human resources. It must also explore ways of providing alternative language maintenance programmes in schools and or school districts which cannot be provided with, or offer, additional languages of teaching in the home language(s) of learners. In the Western Cape this applies to speakers of an African language other than Xhosa.
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11 The latter study reflects the views of principals only, which could explain the discrepancy between the results of the PRAESA study on the one hand (see Research Report IIb) and the studies conducted by MSSA and SBA.
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